The scientific study of the interactionships within small groups and relationships of group members to one another when carrying specific task like learning in children helping each other.The aim is to discover the negleties,rejects and isolaties.These interactions and relationships are flexibles they aren't permanent. Hence there is need for a change in grouping strategies.Therefore grouping is situational.
According Gwarinda(1993)grouping ,involves diving the class into small groups of six or so pupils often with a group leader.Pupils should be given the chance to be group leaders.
Groups maybe permanent for all subject or only for certain subject.Subdividing a large class group into small manageable groups for effective teaching and learning. Most of teaching is effective by groupwork ,since class sizes are too large for teaching purposes.
Situations Suitable for Grouping
1.When material resources are limited.
2.When there is no enough time to reteach a concept.
3.The task is too heavy for the one person.
4.Development of social values ,for instance cooperation.
5.The methods of demands so ,for example discussion.
6.By nature the learners doesn't allow them to work alone ,like the physically challenged or slow learners.
7.When the teacher is unable to manage individually working learners.
Strategies for Grouping
It should be done before the lessons .Grouping can be done:
Using the name list:
The teacher picks names from the list from a systematic or in a random manner .
Following sitting arrangement:
Pupils count up to five and arrange them ,those who say one form a group and the twos and so on.Then arrange them in that order.
The learner's interest:
All pupils with the same interest are put in the same group ,for example in music pupils who are interested in soprano are put in the same group.
Friendship
Those who are friendly to each other are put in one group.
Ability
Pupils of the same ability are put in the same group that's slow learners grouped together and fast learners on their group.
Sex
Boys can be separated from girls or they may be mixed in a proportionate.
Personality
Learners of the same personality are put in the same group
Advantages of the Grouping Methods:
There is the sharing of the ideas which makes learners learn in a very short time.
Difficult tasks cannot be handled by a single hand and they may need the movement of furniture.
Material resources can be shared ,learning is made simple.
Social values can be developed , for instance tolerance,selflessness,teamwork ,cooperation etc.
The competition in group activities makes them work harder. Various materials can be used by different groups at the same time.
Talents in the learners can identified ,like leadership qualities can be exploited and it also promotes pupils participation.
Disadvantages of Grouping:
It is time consuming from orgsnisation to the working in group activities.
Learners are frustrated when ideas are not accepted. Mob-psychology may lead to time wasting ,influence may result in wrong tasks being done. These disrupted relations may sour if members are not compatible. and individual talents may be overshadowed,this means one's potential is suppressed in groupwork.
Accountability becomes a problem because no body is to be responsible for any wrong thing done .It may obviously led to poor results. Assessing group tasks can be very unfair.
The method increases the chances of descrimination.Superiority and inferiority may develop and it may be the harbour activities of laziness and bullying.
31 October 2010
The main causes of reading problems to the children
There are so many problems which inhibit children developing the skills of reading among them include ,mispronunciation ,stammering ,lack of practice and environment not conducive for promoting reading skill development.
Some of educational causes of reading problems include inadequate reading readiness before formal teaching of reading. Some may have inadequate oral language base according to Sprosty (1993) a child can never read a word s/he can never seen before.
Children may get inappropriate reading instructions. Pupils learn to read effectively by developmental and appropriately paced approach. However the teachers must avoid reading texts at frustrational levels. They must consider the different cognitive levels of children ,the instructional levels which guide children to read after given instrument. The independent reading level ,the children reads without instructions.
Teachers in the developing countries for example because of lack of the educators. The few who are in the field are given large classes of over 60 pupils whom will definitely lack individualised instructions and good teacher pupil relationships.Some children have reading problems simply because they afraid their teacher or the teacher is not patient to the slow learners and have self-fulfilling prophecy ,that's having a pre-conceived idea of the child.
The reading programme might be displayed well on the timetable ,but the teachers may not utilise it as they focus on other skills such as writing and oral work.Instead of the reading programme as per timetable.
Some school administrators may lack the knowledge of supervising their staff to develop reading skills and some communities have poor school attendance which is not pleasing teachers to effectively help pupils to develop their language skills such as of reading which needs constant practise. In some communities again there is also massive movements of children as their parents are migrating to other places seeking for employment or sustainable and comfortable living conditions after being affected by wars,natural disasters or any other possible natural causes.
Apart of educational causes, physical causes can hinder every workable reading skills these include visual defects,stammering ,poor general health ,malnutrition,auditory defects or the lack of medical assistance.
Intellectual causes can cause reading problems and are found to be of average or below average intelligence. At about transitional period when the child is wearning from infants classes to juniours ,intellectual ability becomes more and more critical.This is because of the need for evaluation and interpretation of what the child read for understanding(comprehension).
Finally the social and emotional causes contribute to reading difficulties which further trigger emotional disturbances.
Social backgrounds or cultural activities may deprived children as they are not getting effective instructions . When teaching reading teachers should make use of concrete media to enhance the concrete experience for a particular learner.
Some of educational causes of reading problems include inadequate reading readiness before formal teaching of reading. Some may have inadequate oral language base according to Sprosty (1993) a child can never read a word s/he can never seen before.
Children may get inappropriate reading instructions. Pupils learn to read effectively by developmental and appropriately paced approach. However the teachers must avoid reading texts at frustrational levels. They must consider the different cognitive levels of children ,the instructional levels which guide children to read after given instrument. The independent reading level ,the children reads without instructions.
Teachers in the developing countries for example because of lack of the educators. The few who are in the field are given large classes of over 60 pupils whom will definitely lack individualised instructions and good teacher pupil relationships.Some children have reading problems simply because they afraid their teacher or the teacher is not patient to the slow learners and have self-fulfilling prophecy ,that's having a pre-conceived idea of the child.
The reading programme might be displayed well on the timetable ,but the teachers may not utilise it as they focus on other skills such as writing and oral work.Instead of the reading programme as per timetable.
Some school administrators may lack the knowledge of supervising their staff to develop reading skills and some communities have poor school attendance which is not pleasing teachers to effectively help pupils to develop their language skills such as of reading which needs constant practise. In some communities again there is also massive movements of children as their parents are migrating to other places seeking for employment or sustainable and comfortable living conditions after being affected by wars,natural disasters or any other possible natural causes.
Apart of educational causes, physical causes can hinder every workable reading skills these include visual defects,stammering ,poor general health ,malnutrition,auditory defects or the lack of medical assistance.
Intellectual causes can cause reading problems and are found to be of average or below average intelligence. At about transitional period when the child is wearning from infants classes to juniours ,intellectual ability becomes more and more critical.This is because of the need for evaluation and interpretation of what the child read for understanding(comprehension).
Finally the social and emotional causes contribute to reading difficulties which further trigger emotional disturbances.
Social backgrounds or cultural activities may deprived children as they are not getting effective instructions . When teaching reading teachers should make use of concrete media to enhance the concrete experience for a particular learner.
The Development of Oral Skills in Children Education
Language is primarily speech. The knowledge of a language is often associated with the ability to understand and speak the language.
The development of aural-oral skills (listening and speaking) has a crucial role to play in second language teaching programme as it comparatively easy to develop other skills namely reading and writing . Basing on the oral foundation of speaking and listening.
The advantages of oral approach are that foundation of learning to read and write especially second language. It is vital to personal development . By providing learning children with tools for intellectual development of comprehension and problem-solving. Furthermore help in the internalisation of grammar ,in addition to easier correction of studies.
The skill of listening helps the learner to understand the spoken language and the teacher in particular as he/she directs the methhod of instruction. The learner recognise both the language speech sounds both in isolation and in combination.
Moreover in the skill of listening the child is capable of distinguishing the language sounds in similar one in his/her first language and understand the lexical meaning of words in context and grammatical meanings of structures. Listening skills make it understandable in the meaning conveyed by stress and intonation patterns.
The listener can able to grasp the mood of the speaker and the theme of the discourse ,that's the speech. Anticipation words and structures from the context for understanding speech at normal conversation speed. The listening skill also enables to guess the meaning of unfamiliar words from the context.
The skill of speaking in other side helps to assist the student to be able to produce the characteristc language speech sounds both in isolation and combination. The use of appropriated stress and intonation pattern. The speaker can use appropriate words and structures to express intended meaning . Through recalling words and structures quickly ,organised in thoughts and ideas logically. In addition can also able to adjust speech according to audience situation and subject.
The teacher can now plan activities for training discrimination of sounds by uttering pairs of words or sentences for pupils to identify whether the same or different. For example:
ship: ship. They are the same.
sheep:ship. They are different.
The man is watching the car.
The man is washing the car. Are these two sentences same/different.
The second activity the teacher can write minimum pairs of words or sentences on the board.
Tin / thin
cane/ can
Show me the tape/ Show me the tap.
Minimum pairs for stres and intonation patterns.
rećord
recórd
You have á book.
You have à book.
The teacher can give various commands to be followed by pupils ,for example:
Put the ball on the bag
Put the ball in the bag.
Though listening and speaking go together . It is speaking which makes the learner more effective in learning process hence provides maximum opportunity to the students to speak the language . The effectiveness of language speaking is through a greater pupils ' speaking time ratio than teacher speaking time.
Above all it is important to note that pupils should speak the language in meaningful situations (Functional) . Sufficient repetition annd variety for habit formation without creating boredom.
The corrections should be selective and should be mainly based on the drilling of the best form ,whilst persisten crucial errors should be dealt with in a separate remedial lesson.
References
Baruah, T.C(1991)English teacher's handbook.
Sprosty,L(1995) Theaching language arts in primary school.
Byrne ,D.(1983)ENglish teaching perspectives.
The development of aural-oral skills (listening and speaking) has a crucial role to play in second language teaching programme as it comparatively easy to develop other skills namely reading and writing . Basing on the oral foundation of speaking and listening.
The advantages of oral approach are that foundation of learning to read and write especially second language. It is vital to personal development . By providing learning children with tools for intellectual development of comprehension and problem-solving. Furthermore help in the internalisation of grammar ,in addition to easier correction of studies.
The skill of listening helps the learner to understand the spoken language and the teacher in particular as he/she directs the methhod of instruction. The learner recognise both the language speech sounds both in isolation and in combination.
Moreover in the skill of listening the child is capable of distinguishing the language sounds in similar one in his/her first language and understand the lexical meaning of words in context and grammatical meanings of structures. Listening skills make it understandable in the meaning conveyed by stress and intonation patterns.
The listener can able to grasp the mood of the speaker and the theme of the discourse ,that's the speech. Anticipation words and structures from the context for understanding speech at normal conversation speed. The listening skill also enables to guess the meaning of unfamiliar words from the context.
The skill of speaking in other side helps to assist the student to be able to produce the characteristc language speech sounds both in isolation and combination. The use of appropriated stress and intonation pattern. The speaker can use appropriate words and structures to express intended meaning . Through recalling words and structures quickly ,organised in thoughts and ideas logically. In addition can also able to adjust speech according to audience situation and subject.
The teacher can now plan activities for training discrimination of sounds by uttering pairs of words or sentences for pupils to identify whether the same or different. For example:
ship: ship. They are the same.
sheep:ship. They are different.
The man is watching the car.
The man is washing the car. Are these two sentences same/different.
The second activity the teacher can write minimum pairs of words or sentences on the board.
Tin / thin
cane/ can
Show me the tape/ Show me the tap.
Minimum pairs for stres and intonation patterns.
rećord
recórd
You have á book.
You have à book.
The teacher can give various commands to be followed by pupils ,for example:
Put the ball on the bag
Put the ball in the bag.
Though listening and speaking go together . It is speaking which makes the learner more effective in learning process hence provides maximum opportunity to the students to speak the language . The effectiveness of language speaking is through a greater pupils ' speaking time ratio than teacher speaking time.
Above all it is important to note that pupils should speak the language in meaningful situations (Functional) . Sufficient repetition annd variety for habit formation without creating boredom.
The corrections should be selective and should be mainly based on the drilling of the best form ,whilst persisten crucial errors should be dealt with in a separate remedial lesson.
References
Baruah, T.C(1991)English teacher's handbook.
Sprosty,L(1995) Theaching language arts in primary school.
Byrne ,D.(1983)ENglish teaching perspectives.
Methods of Teaching Reading to the infants
There are many methods of teaching reading which the teacher can use in the teaching and learning process.
Code emphasis approach is the alphabertical method which emphasise on learning letters .Pupils read as consisting of the named letters for example risk.
The phonic method or syllabic method is an improvement from the alphabertic and its main emphsis is on the sound that each sound symbol .The teacher should teach phonic alongside a meaning emphasis approach .The Zimbabwean major dialects chishona and isindebele use syllables which is phonic approach.
The advantages of this approach are that children can tackle decoding of new words ,learn letter sound combination which enabled them to be independent readers.
Phonic method helps to read from left to right and it trains spellings.
The weaknesses associated with this approach are that so many English words don't have a constant letter -sound relationships. But chishona has this relationships throughout. Splitting of English words may encourage habits of slow reading. It therefore requires a carefully graded reading vocabulary. Above all no understanding as there is argument on when to use phonic ,some children appear to have problems of linking words and meaning.
Linking together approach is where the whole word method look and say it. This stresses on the whole word and takes it to be indivisible. The learner reads each word as word picture without giving attention to individual letters. This is very possible to English words as second language than in dialects like chishona in which there is need to combine the syllables to make a word and the reader should read each syllable to make the sound of the word.
Children are taught to perceive in wholes (Gestelt theory of learning)The popular look and say method goes along these lines: The phrase and sentence methods .
The major benefits associated with this method are that through the sentence method the child begins to take a sentence making. There are logical methods that are used to introduce children to reading process.According to Gestelt ,the eye tends to see whole before analysing and build a sight vocabulary.
Drawbacks encountered in this approach are encouragement of guesswork,not providing tool for tackling new words. Children are limited to graded vocabulary .Writing is postponed until the children see the presence of a large sight vocabulary words similar in length might confuse the beginner readers.
When teachers use these methods must analyse the interests of children ,their cognitive level and their experiences as a base to develop the reading skill in children.
Code emphasis approach is the alphabertical method which emphasise on learning letters .Pupils read as consisting of the named letters for example risk.
The phonic method or syllabic method is an improvement from the alphabertic and its main emphsis is on the sound that each sound symbol .The teacher should teach phonic alongside a meaning emphasis approach .The Zimbabwean major dialects chishona and isindebele use syllables which is phonic approach.
The advantages of this approach are that children can tackle decoding of new words ,learn letter sound combination which enabled them to be independent readers.
Phonic method helps to read from left to right and it trains spellings.
The weaknesses associated with this approach are that so many English words don't have a constant letter -sound relationships. But chishona has this relationships throughout. Splitting of English words may encourage habits of slow reading. It therefore requires a carefully graded reading vocabulary. Above all no understanding as there is argument on when to use phonic ,some children appear to have problems of linking words and meaning.
Linking together approach is where the whole word method look and say it. This stresses on the whole word and takes it to be indivisible. The learner reads each word as word picture without giving attention to individual letters. This is very possible to English words as second language than in dialects like chishona in which there is need to combine the syllables to make a word and the reader should read each syllable to make the sound of the word.
Children are taught to perceive in wholes (Gestelt theory of learning)The popular look and say method goes along these lines: The phrase and sentence methods .
The major benefits associated with this method are that through the sentence method the child begins to take a sentence making. There are logical methods that are used to introduce children to reading process.According to Gestelt ,the eye tends to see whole before analysing and build a sight vocabulary.
Drawbacks encountered in this approach are encouragement of guesswork,not providing tool for tackling new words. Children are limited to graded vocabulary .Writing is postponed until the children see the presence of a large sight vocabulary words similar in length might confuse the beginner readers.
When teachers use these methods must analyse the interests of children ,their cognitive level and their experiences as a base to develop the reading skill in children.
SCHEMES OF WORK IN THE EDUCATION SYSTEM.
No teacher can effectively teach with out schemes of work ,worse still the syllabus and lesson plans. Schemes of work is the candle light which guides the teacher to follow the education curriculum designed in the society to educate its own members.
The scheme is the breakdown of syllabus into teachable units for a specifically given time frame. For example week ,month or term. In other words it is the amount of materials the teacher prepares and intends to teach during a stipulated period of time.
The reflective teacher has to plan a scheme of work in advance for the coverage of subjects topics or concepts as drafted in the syllabus. It's basically the teacher's own personal plan of what he /she intends to teach why and how will teach over a period of time thus aims ,methods and activities.
Characteristics of good schemes of work should take into account the pupils' needs and interests which allow plenty of activities and involvement suited to their age ,experiences and stage of cognitive development.
Normally pupils in any class organisation usually without strict and precise sreen criteria, they possess different learning levels ,that's slow ,average and fast. Then the teacher must have a variety of learning activites to cater for these differences.
The schemes must be very clear in its various components ,that's the content ,instructional media ,methods , aims and also duration of lessons.
In most developing countries where internet and computer technology is still at its infancy usually schemes of work is done manually written by hand in a hard cover exercise book A4 size ,neatly well covered and submitted to the head of institution normally on weekly basis.On the cover before plastic cover a label of the name of the teacher and relevant personal details are included.
On the first page normally contains timetable ,information of the number of pupils ,thus in terms of their sex and age range. Page two is used to reflect the index of all subjects in the order they are schemed. Anywhere the teacher can device his/her own methods of attaching labels to the first page of each separate scheme.
Then the rest of the scheme book is divided into section for individual subjects . On the first page of each subject or discipline usually contains the index -name of the subject ,topics to be covered ,broad aims of the subject to be achieved.
A good aim contains words which express the philosophy of the subject ,that's it defines the unique of reference which the subject seeks to investigate for example in social science: To develop pupils ' ability to relate to others in the home ,school or community.
The format of the schemes of work like the different of schools or teachers is also the same .Each institution has its own agreed format which they all emphasise.
Generally scheme include the week ending date which in most countries ends on Friday or week's beginning of Monday. The topic to indicate the material to be covered during a particular week .Content derived from the topic and to cover a number of lessons per week.
Sources of matter should show the reference books ,journal ,newspapers,sites or resource persons from which information to be taught taken.
The media or instructional aids are objects ,charts ,pictures,wordcards or anything used by the teacher and pupils to facilitate learning process, to enhance the comprehension of the concepts in question. Please note to be specific in listing media ,value it and name only which is readily available.
Methods and activities enumerate the various steps to be followed when teaching .Lessons should flow sequentially . The activites of both the teacher and pupils to facilitate learning process should include discussion,story telling,dramatisation,demostrate ,practice ,questioning and answering and so on.
Evaluative comments are made at the end of the period for which each topic is schemed normally at the end of the week.The evaluation should reflect the lessons performance ,without bias list what has being achieved and not achieved or successes and failures or strength and weaknesses of the lessons within the same topic. The teacher should then gives possible extension or remedial work as solutions on how she/he intends to rectify the findings.
The scheme is the breakdown of syllabus into teachable units for a specifically given time frame. For example week ,month or term. In other words it is the amount of materials the teacher prepares and intends to teach during a stipulated period of time.
The reflective teacher has to plan a scheme of work in advance for the coverage of subjects topics or concepts as drafted in the syllabus. It's basically the teacher's own personal plan of what he /she intends to teach why and how will teach over a period of time thus aims ,methods and activities.
Characteristics of good schemes of work should take into account the pupils' needs and interests which allow plenty of activities and involvement suited to their age ,experiences and stage of cognitive development.
Normally pupils in any class organisation usually without strict and precise sreen criteria, they possess different learning levels ,that's slow ,average and fast. Then the teacher must have a variety of learning activites to cater for these differences.
The schemes must be very clear in its various components ,that's the content ,instructional media ,methods , aims and also duration of lessons.
In most developing countries where internet and computer technology is still at its infancy usually schemes of work is done manually written by hand in a hard cover exercise book A4 size ,neatly well covered and submitted to the head of institution normally on weekly basis.On the cover before plastic cover a label of the name of the teacher and relevant personal details are included.
On the first page normally contains timetable ,information of the number of pupils ,thus in terms of their sex and age range. Page two is used to reflect the index of all subjects in the order they are schemed. Anywhere the teacher can device his/her own methods of attaching labels to the first page of each separate scheme.
Then the rest of the scheme book is divided into section for individual subjects . On the first page of each subject or discipline usually contains the index -name of the subject ,topics to be covered ,broad aims of the subject to be achieved.
A good aim contains words which express the philosophy of the subject ,that's it defines the unique of reference which the subject seeks to investigate for example in social science: To develop pupils ' ability to relate to others in the home ,school or community.
The format of the schemes of work like the different of schools or teachers is also the same .Each institution has its own agreed format which they all emphasise.
Generally scheme include the week ending date which in most countries ends on Friday or week's beginning of Monday. The topic to indicate the material to be covered during a particular week .Content derived from the topic and to cover a number of lessons per week.
Sources of matter should show the reference books ,journal ,newspapers,sites or resource persons from which information to be taught taken.
The media or instructional aids are objects ,charts ,pictures,wordcards or anything used by the teacher and pupils to facilitate learning process, to enhance the comprehension of the concepts in question. Please note to be specific in listing media ,value it and name only which is readily available.
Methods and activities enumerate the various steps to be followed when teaching .Lessons should flow sequentially . The activites of both the teacher and pupils to facilitate learning process should include discussion,story telling,dramatisation,demostrate ,practice ,questioning and answering and so on.
Evaluative comments are made at the end of the period for which each topic is schemed normally at the end of the week.The evaluation should reflect the lessons performance ,without bias list what has being achieved and not achieved or successes and failures or strength and weaknesses of the lessons within the same topic. The teacher should then gives possible extension or remedial work as solutions on how she/he intends to rectify the findings.
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